CHAPTER 1 CHEMISTRY AND MEASUREMENT

The chapter opens with a brief introduction to chemistry, followed by a discussion of measurement and significant figures.

An Introduction to Chemistry

1. 1.1 Modern Chemistry: A Brief Glimpse
2. 1.2 Experiment and Explanation
3. 1.3 Law of Conservation of Mass
4. 1.4 Matter: Physical State and Chemical Constitution

Physical Measurements

1. 1.5 Measurement and Significant Figures
2. 1.6 SI Units
3. 1.7 Derived Units
4. 1.8 Units and Dimensional Analysis (Factor-Label Method)

CHAPTER 2 ATOMS, MOLECULES, AND IONS

The chapter introduces basic concepts needed in the course: atomic theory, atomic structure, atomic mass, periodic table, molecular and ionic substances, formulas, organic compounds, naming of compounds, and chemical equations.

Atomic Theory and Atomic Structure

1. 2.1 Atomic Theory of Matter
2. 2.2 The Structure of the Atom
3. 2.3 Nuclear Structure; Isotopes
4. 2.4 Atomic Masses
5. 2.5 Periodic Table of the Elements

Chemical Substances: Formulas and Names

1. 2.6 Chemical Formulas; Molecular and Ionic Substances
2. 2.7 Organic Compounds
3. 2.8 Naming Simple Compounds

Chemical Reactions: Equations

1. 2.9 Writing Chemical Equations
2. 2.10 Balancing Chemical Equations

CHAPTER 3 CALCULATIONS WITH CHEMICAL FORMULAS AND EQUATIONS

This chapter uses the concepts of formula mass and the mole to obtain chemical formulas and to perform calculations with chemical equations.

Mass and Moles of Substance

1. 3.1 Molecular Mass and Formula Mass
2. 3.2 The Mole Concept

Determining Chemical Formulas

1. 3.3 Mass Percentages from the Formula
2. 3.4 Elemental Analysis: Percentages of Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen
3. 3.5 Determining Formulas

Stoichiometry: Quantitative Relations in Chemical Reactions

1. 3.6 Molar Interpretation of a Chemical Equation
2. 3.7 Amounts of Substances in a Chemical Reaction
3. 3.8 Limiting Reactant; Theoretical and Percentage Yields

CHAPTER 4 CHEMICAL REACTIONS

This chapter introduces the basic concepts of reactions, particularly those concerned with ionic reactions in aqueous solution.

1. 4.1 Ionic Theory of Solutions and Solubility Rules
2. 4.2 Molecular and Ionic Equations

Types of Chemical Reactions

1. 4.3 Precipitation Reactions
2. 4.4 Acid–Base Reactions
3. 4.5 Oxidation–Reduction Reactions
4. 4.6 Balancing Simple Oxidation–Reduction Equations

Working with Solutions

1. 4.7 Molar Concentration
2. 4.8 Diluting Solutions

Quantitative Analysis

1. 4.9 Gravimetric Analysis
2. 4.10 Volumetric Analysis

CHAPTER 5 THE GASEOUS STATE

This chapter treats the gas laws and the kinetic-molecular theory.

Gas Laws

1. 5.1 Gas Pressure and Its Measurement
2. 5.2 Empirical Gas Laws
3. 5.3 The Ideal Gas Law
4. 5.4 Stoichiometry Problems Involving Gas Volumes
5. 5.5 Gas Mixtures; Law of Partial Pressures

Kinetic-Molecular Theory

1. 5.6 Kinetic Theory of an Ideal Gas
2. 5.7 Molecular Speeds; Diffusion and Effusion
3. 5.8 Real Gases

CHAPTER 6 THERMOCHEMISTRY

Heats of reaction and the concept of enthalpy are discussed. Concepts of entropy and free energy are deferred until Chapter 18 (the first law of thermodynamics is discussed explicitly in that chapter).

Understanding Heats of Reaction

1. 6.1 Energy and Its Units
2. 6.2 Heat of Reaction
3. 6.3 Enthalpy and Enthalpy Change
4. 6.4 Thermochemical Equations
5. 6.5 Applying Stoichiometry to Heats of Reaction
6. 6.6 Measuring Heats of Reaction

Using Heats of Reaction

1. 6.7 Hess's Law
2. 6.8 Standard Enthalpies of Formation
3. 6.9 Fuels—Foods, Commercial Fuels, and Rocket Fuels

CHAPTER 7 QUANTUM THEORY OF THE ATOM

This chapter begins by presenting the properties of light as a prelude to describing Bohr's theory of the hydrogen atom. The chapter ends with a discussion of quantum numbers and atomic orbitals. Electron configurations of atoms are dealt with in the next chapter.

Light Waves, Photons, and the Bohr Theory

1. 7.1 The Wave Nature of Light
2. 7.2 Quantum Effects and Photons
3. 7.3 The Bohr Theory of the Hydrogen Atom

Quantum Mechanics and Quantum Numbers

1. 7.4 Quantum Mechanics
2. 7.5 Quantum Numbers and Atomic Orbitals

CHAPTER 8 ELECTRON CONFIGURATIONS AND PERIODICITY

This chapter is a continuation of Chapter 7, which introduced the concepts of atomic orbitals and quantum numbers. Here we look at the electron configurations of atoms and describe the relationship between these configurations and the periodic behavior of the elements.

Electronic Structure of Atoms

1. 8.1 Electron Spin and the Pauli Exclusion Principle
2. 8.2 Building-Up Principle and the Periodic Table
3. 8.3 Writing Electron Configurations Using the Periodic Table
4. 8.4 Orbital Diagrams of Atoms; Hund's Rule

Periodicity of the Elements

1. 8.5 Mendeleev's Predictions from the Periodic Table
2. 8.6 Some Periodic Properties
3. 8.7 Periodicity in the Main-Group Elements

CHAPTER 9 IONIC AND COVALENT BONDING

The chapter discusses the elementary aspects of chemical bonding, concluding with sections on bond properties.

Ionic Bonds

1. 9.1 Describing Ionic Bonds
2. 9.2 Electron Configurations of Ions
3. 9.3 Ionic Radii

Covalent Bonds

1. 9.4 Describing Covalent Bonds
2. 9.5 Polar Covalent Bonds; Electronegativity
3. 9.6 Writing Lewis Electron-Dot Formulas
4. 9.7 Delocalized Bonding: Resonance
5. 9.8 Exceptions to the Octet Rule
6. 9.9 Formal Charge and Lewis Formulas
7. 9.10 Bond Length and Bond Order
8. 9.11 Bond Energy

CHAPTER 10 MOLECULAR GEOMETRY AND CHEMICAL BONDING THEORY

This chapter covers more advanced bonding concepts than those presented in the previous chapter, including molecular geometry, hybrid orbitals, and molecular orbital theory.

Molecular Geometry and Directional Bonding

1. 10.1 The Valence-Shell Electron-Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) Model
2. 10.2 Dipole Moment and Molecular Geometry
3. 10.3 Valence Bond Theory
4. 10.4 Description of Multiple Bonding

Molecular Orbital Theory

1. 10.5 Principles of Molecular Orbital Theory
2. 10.6 Electron Configurations of Diatomic Molecules of the Second-Period Elements
3. 10.7 Molecular Orbitals and Delocalized Bonding

CHAPTER 11 STATES OF MATTER; LIQUIDS AND SOLIDS

This chapter looks at the states of matter (particularly liquids and solids) and their transformations from one state to another.

1. 11.1 Comparison of Gases, Liquids, and Solids

Changes of State

1. 11.2 Phase Transitions
2. 11.3 Phase Diagrams

Liquid State

1. 11.4 Properties of Liquids; Surface Tension and Viscosity
2. 11.5 Intermolecular Forces; Explaining Liquid Properties

Solid State

1. 11.6 Classification of Solids by Type of Attraction of Units

CHAPTER 12 SOLUTIONS

This chapter looks at solution formation, colligative properties, concentration units, and colloids.

Solution Formation

1. 12.1 Types of Solutions
2. 12.2 Solubility and the Solution Process
3. 12.3 Effects of Temperature and Pressure on Solubility

Colligative Properties

1. 12.4 Ways of Expressing Concentration
2. 12.5 Vapor Pressure of a Solution
3. 12.6 Boiling-Point Elevation and Freezing- Point Depression
4. 12.7 Osmosis
5. 12.8 Colligative Properties of Ionic Solutions

Colloid Formation

1. 12.9 Colloids

CHAPTER 13 RATES OF REACTION

This chapter looks at some important questions concerning chemical reactions: How fast do chemical reactions occur, what factors affect this rate, and how do reactions occur at the molecular level?

1. 13.1 Definition of Reaction Rate
2. 13.2 Experimental Determination of Rate
3. 13.3 Dependence of Rate on Concentration
4. 13.4 Change of Concentration with Time
5. 13.5 Temperature and Rate; Collision and Transition-State Theories
6. 13.6 Arrhenius Equation

Reaction Mechanisms

1. 13.7 Elementary Reactions
2. 13.8 The Rate Law and the Mechanism
3. 13.9 Catalysis

CHAPTER 14 CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM

This chapter begins a block of chapters dealing with chemical equilibrium. The method used to solve equilibrium problems is described here, and that method is used uniformly throughout the chapters on equilibrium calculations. Gaseous reactions are used to illustrate the principles.

Describing Chemical Equilibrium

1. 14.1 Chemical Equilibrium—A Dynamic Equilibrium
2. 14.2 The Equilibrium Constant
3. 14.3 Heterogeneous Equilibria; Solvents in Homogeneous Equilibria

Using the Equilibrium Constant

1. 14.4 Qualitatively Interpreting the Equilibrium Constant
2. 14.5 Predicting the Direction of Reaction
3. 14.6 Calculating Equilibrium Concentrations

Changing the Reaction Conditions: Le Châtelier's Principle

1. 14.7 Removing Products or Adding Reactants
2. 14.8 Changing the Pressure and Temperature
3. 14.9 Effect of a Catalyst

CHAPTER 15 ACIDS AND BASES

This chapter discusses the three main acid–base concepts and introduces the pH concept needed for the next chapter.

Acid–Base Concepts

1. 15.1 Arrhenius Concept of Acids and Bases
2. 15.2 Brønsted–Lowry Concept of Acids and Bases
3. 15.3 Lewis Concept of Acids and Bases

Acid and Base Strengths

1. 15.4 Relative Strengths of Acids and Bases
2. 15.5 Molecular Structure and Acid Strength

Self-Ionization of Water and pH

1. 15.6 Self-Ionization of Water
2. 15.7 Solutions of a Strong Acid or Base
3. 15.8 The pH of a Solution

CHAPTER 16 ACID–BASE EQUILIBRIA

This chapter looks quantitatively at acid–base equilibria including hydrolysis, common-ion effect, and buffers.

Solutions of a Weak Acid or Base

1. 16.1 Acid-Ionization Equilibria
2. 16.2 Polyprotic Acids
3. 16.3 Base-Ionization Equilibria
4. 16.4 Acid–Base Properties of Salt Solutions

Solutions of a Weak Acid or Base with Another Solute

1. 16.5 Common-Ion Effect
2. 16.6 Buffers
3. 16.7 Acid–Base Titration Curves

CHAPTER 17 SOLUBILITY AND COMPLEX-ION EQUILIBRIA

The chapter deals with solubility and precipitation as well as complex-ion formation and its effect on solubility.

Solubility Equilibria

1. 17.1 The Solubility Product Constant
2. 17.2 Solubility and the Common-Ion Effect
3. 17.3 Precipitation Calculations
4. 17.4 Effect of pH on Solubility

Complex-Ion Equilibria

1. 17.5 Complex-Ion Formation
2. 17.6 Complex Ions and Solubility

An Application of Solubility Equilibria

1. 17.7 Qualitative Analysis of Metal Ions

CHAPTER 18 THERMODYNAMICS AND EQUILIBRIUM

This chapter looks at the spontaneity of a chemical reaction in terms of the thermodynamic concepts of entropy and free energy. The equilibrium constant is related to free energy in the last two sections.

1. 18.1 First Law of Thermodynamics; Enthalpy

Spontaneous Processes and Entropy

1. 18.2 Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics
2. 18.3 Standard Entropies and the Third Law of Thermodynamics

Free-Energy Concept

1. 18.4 Free Energy and Spontaneity
2. 18.5 Interpretation of Free Energy

Free Energy and Equilibrium Constants

1. 18.6 Relating ΔG° to the Equilibrium Constant
2. 18.7 Change of Free Energy with Temperature

CHAPTER 19 ELECTROCHEMISTRY

This chapter looks at electrochemistry and what it has to say about the spontaneity of reaction and about the electrolytic decomposition of a substance.

Half-Reactions

1. 19.1 Balancing Oxidation–Reduction Reactions in Acidic and Basic Solutions

Voltaic Cells

1. 19.2 Construction of Voltaic Cells
2. 19.3 Notation for Voltaic Cells
3. 19.4 Cell Potential
4. 19.5 Standard Cell Potentials and Standard Electrode Potentials
5. 19.6 Equilibrium Constants from Cell Potentials
6. 19.7 Dependence of Cell Potential on Concentration
7. 19.8 Some Commercial Voltaic Cells